1 /* @(#)e_sqrt.c 5.1 93/09/24 */
3 * ====================================================
4 * Copyright (C) 1993 by Sun Microsystems, Inc. All rights reserved.
6 * Developed at SunPro, a Sun Microsystems, Inc. business.
7 * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this
8 * software is freely granted, provided that this notice
10 * ====================================================
13 #if defined(LIBM_SCCS) && !defined(lint)
14 static char rcsid[] = "$NetBSD: e_sqrt.c,v 1.8 1995/05/10 20:46:17 jtc Exp $";
18 * Return correctly rounded sqrt.
19 * ------------------------------------------
20 * | Use the hardware sqrt if you have one |
21 * ------------------------------------------
23 * Bit by bit method using integer arithmetic. (Slow, but portable)
25 * Scale x to y in [1,4) with even powers of 2:
26 * find an integer k such that 1 <= (y=x*2^(2k)) < 4, then
27 * sqrt(x) = 2^k * sqrt(y)
28 * 2. Bit by bit computation
29 * Let q = sqrt(y) truncated to i bit after binary point (q = 1),
32 * s = 2*q , and y = 2 * ( y - q ). (1)
35 * To compute q from q , one checks whether
42 * If (2) is false, then q = q ; otherwise q = q + 2 .
45 * With some algebric manipulation, it is not difficult to see
46 * that (2) is equivalent to
51 * The advantage of (3) is that s and y can be computed by
53 * the following recurrence formula:
61 * s = s + 2 , y = y - s - 2 (5)
64 * One may easily use induction to prove (4) and (5).
65 * Note. Since the left hand side of (3) contain only i+2 bits,
66 * it does not necessary to do a full (53-bit) comparison
69 * After generating the 53 bits result, we compute one more bit.
70 * Together with the remainder, we can decide whether the
71 * result is exact, bigger than 1/2ulp, or less than 1/2ulp
72 * (it will never equal to 1/2ulp).
73 * The rounding mode can be detected by checking whether
74 * huge + tiny is equal to huge, and whether huge - tiny is
75 * equal to huge for some floating point number "huge" and "tiny".
78 * sqrt(+-0) = +-0 ... exact
80 * sqrt(-ve) = NaN ... with invalid signal
81 * sqrt(NaN) = NaN ... with invalid signal for signaling NaN
83 * Other methods : see the appended file at the end of the program below.
88 #include "math_private.h"
91 double SDL_NAME(copysign)(double x, double y)
93 double SDL_NAME(copysign)(x,y)
100 SET_HIGH_WORD(x,(hx&0x7fffffff)|(hy&0x80000000));
105 double SDL_NAME(scalbn) (double x, int n)
107 double SDL_NAME(scalbn) (x,n)
112 EXTRACT_WORDS(hx,lx,x);
113 k = (hx&0x7ff00000)>>20; /* extract exponent */
114 if (k==0) { /* 0 or subnormal x */
115 if ((lx|(hx&0x7fffffff))==0) return x; /* +-0 */
118 k = ((hx&0x7ff00000)>>20) - 54;
119 if (n< -50000) return tiny*x; /*underflow*/
121 if (k==0x7ff) return x+x; /* NaN or Inf */
123 if (k > 0x7fe) return huge*SDL_NAME(copysign)(huge,x); /* overflow */
124 if (k > 0) /* normal result */
125 {SET_HIGH_WORD(x,(hx&0x800fffff)|(k<<20)); return x;}
127 if (n > 50000) /* in case integer overflow in n+k */
128 return huge*SDL_NAME(copysign)(huge,x); /*overflow*/
129 else return tiny*SDL_NAME(copysign)(tiny,x); /*underflow*/
131 k += 54; /* subnormal result */
132 SET_HIGH_WORD(x,(hx&0x800fffff)|(k<<20));
137 double __ieee754_sqrt(double x)
139 double __ieee754_sqrt(x)
144 int32_t sign = (int)0x80000000;
145 int32_t ix0,s0,q,m,t,i;
146 u_int32_t r,t1,s1,ix1,q1;
148 EXTRACT_WORDS(ix0,ix1,x);
150 /* take care of Inf and NaN */
151 if((ix0&0x7ff00000)==0x7ff00000) {
152 return x*x+x; /* sqrt(NaN)=NaN, sqrt(+inf)=+inf
155 /* take care of zero */
157 if(((ix0&(~sign))|ix1)==0) return x;/* sqrt(+-0) = +-0 */
159 return (x-x)/(x-x); /* sqrt(-ve) = sNaN */
163 if(m==0) { /* subnormal x */
166 ix0 |= (ix1>>11); ix1 <<= 21;
168 for(i=0;(ix0&0x00100000)==0;i++) ix0<<=1;
170 ix0 |= (ix1>>(32-i));
173 m -= 1023; /* unbias exponent */
174 ix0 = (ix0&0x000fffff)|0x00100000;
175 if(m&1){ /* odd m, double x to make it even */
176 ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1&sign)>>31);
179 m >>= 1; /* m = [m/2] */
181 /* generate sqrt(x) bit by bit */
182 ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1&sign)>>31);
184 q = q1 = s0 = s1 = 0; /* [q,q1] = sqrt(x) */
185 r = 0x00200000; /* r = moving bit from right to left */
194 ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1&sign)>>31);
203 if((t<ix0)||((t==ix0)&&(t1<=ix1))) {
205 if(((int32_t)(t1&sign)==sign)&&(s1&sign)==0) s0 += 1;
207 if (ix1 < t1) ix0 -= 1;
211 ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1&sign)>>31);
216 /* use floating add to find out rounding direction */
218 z = one-tiny; /* trigger inexact flag */
221 if (q1==(u_int32_t)0xffffffff) { q1=0; q += 1;}
223 if (q1==(u_int32_t)0xfffffffe) q+=1;
229 ix0 = (q>>1)+0x3fe00000;
231 if ((q&1)==1) ix1 |= sign;
233 INSERT_WORDS(z,ix0,ix1);
238 Other methods (use floating-point arithmetic)
240 (This is a copy of a drafted paper by Prof W. Kahan
241 and K.C. Ng, written in May, 1986)
243 Two algorithms are given here to implement sqrt(x)
244 (IEEE double precision arithmetic) in software.
245 Both supply sqrt(x) correctly rounded. The first algorithm (in
246 Section A) uses newton iterations and involves four divisions.
247 The second one uses reciproot iterations to avoid division, but
248 requires more multiplications. Both algorithms need the ability
249 to chop results of arithmetic operations instead of round them,
250 and the INEXACT flag to indicate when an arithmetic operation
251 is executed exactly with no roundoff error, all part of the
252 standard (IEEE 754-1985). The ability to perform shift, add,
253 subtract and logical AND operations upon 32-bit words is needed
254 too, though not part of the standard.
256 A. sqrt(x) by Newton Iteration
258 (1) Initial approximation
260 Let x0 and x1 be the leading and the trailing 32-bit words of
261 a floating point number x (in IEEE double format) respectively
264 ------------------------------------------------------
266 ------------------------------------------------------
267 msb lsb msb lsb ...order
270 ------------------------ ------------------------
271 x0: |s| e | f1 | x1: | f2 |
272 ------------------------ ------------------------
274 By performing shifts and subtracts on x0 and x1 (both regarded
275 as integers), we obtain an 8-bit approximation of sqrt(x) as
278 k := (x0>>1) + 0x1ff80000;
279 y0 := k - T1[31&(k>>15)]. ... y ~ sqrt(x) to 8 bits
280 Here k is a 32-bit integer and T1[] is an integer array containing
281 correction terms. Now magically the floating value of y (y's
282 leading 32-bit word is y0, the value of its trailing word is 0)
283 approximates sqrt(x) to almost 8-bit.
287 0, 1024, 3062, 5746, 9193, 13348, 18162, 23592,
288 29598, 36145, 43202, 50740, 58733, 67158, 75992, 85215,
289 83599, 71378, 60428, 50647, 41945, 34246, 27478, 21581,
290 16499, 12183, 8588, 5674, 3403, 1742, 661, 130,};
292 (2) Iterative refinement
294 Apply Heron's rule three times to y, we have y approximates
295 sqrt(x) to within 1 ulp (Unit in the Last Place):
297 y := (y+x/y)/2 ... almost 17 sig. bits
298 y := (y+x/y)/2 ... almost 35 sig. bits
299 y := y-(y-x/y)/2 ... within 1 ulp
303 Another way to improve y to within 1 ulp is:
305 y := (y+x/y) ... almost 17 sig. bits to 2*sqrt(x)
306 y := y - 0x00100006 ... almost 18 sig. bits to sqrt(x)
310 y := y + 2* ---------- ...within 1 ulp
315 This formula has one division fewer than the one above; however,
316 it requires more multiplications and additions. Also x must be
317 scaled in advance to avoid spurious overflow in evaluating the
318 expression 3y*y+x. Hence it is not recommended uless division
319 is slow. If division is very slow, then one should use the
320 reciproot algorithm given in section B.
324 By twiddling y's last bit it is possible to force y to be
325 correctly rounded according to the prevailing rounding mode
326 as follows. Let r and i be copies of the rounding mode and
327 inexact flag before entering the square root program. Also we
328 use the expression y+-ulp for the next representable floating
329 numbers (up and down) of y. Note that y+-ulp = either fixed
330 point y+-1, or multiply y by nextafter(1,+-inf) in chopped
333 I := FALSE; ... reset INEXACT flag I
334 R := RZ; ... set rounding mode to round-toward-zero
335 z := x/y; ... chopped quotient, possibly inexact
336 If(not I) then { ... if the quotient is exact
338 I := i; ... restore inexact flag
339 R := r; ... restore rounded mode
342 z := z - ulp; ... special rounding
345 i := TRUE; ... sqrt(x) is inexact
346 If (r=RN) then z=z+ulp ... rounded-to-nearest
347 If (r=RP) then { ... round-toward-+inf
350 y := y+z; ... chopped sum
351 y0:=y0-0x00100000; ... y := y/2 is correctly rounded.
352 I := i; ... restore inexact flag
353 R := r; ... restore rounded mode
358 Square root of +inf, +-0, or NaN is itself;
359 Square root of a negative number is NaN with invalid signal.
362 B. sqrt(x) by Reciproot Iteration
364 (1) Initial approximation
366 Let x0 and x1 be the leading and the trailing 32-bit words of
367 a floating point number x (in IEEE double format) respectively
368 (see section A). By performing shifs and subtracts on x0 and y0,
369 we obtain a 7.8-bit approximation of 1/sqrt(x) as follows.
371 k := 0x5fe80000 - (x0>>1);
372 y0:= k - T2[63&(k>>14)]. ... y ~ 1/sqrt(x) to 7.8 bits
374 Here k is a 32-bit integer and T2[] is an integer array
375 containing correction terms. Now magically the floating
376 value of y (y's leading 32-bit word is y0, the value of
377 its trailing word y1 is set to zero) approximates 1/sqrt(x)
382 0x1500, 0x2ef8, 0x4d67, 0x6b02, 0x87be, 0xa395, 0xbe7a, 0xd866,
383 0xf14a, 0x1091b,0x11fcd,0x13552,0x14999,0x15c98,0x16e34,0x17e5f,
384 0x18d03,0x19a01,0x1a545,0x1ae8a,0x1b5c4,0x1bb01,0x1bfde,0x1c28d,
385 0x1c2de,0x1c0db,0x1ba73,0x1b11c,0x1a4b5,0x1953d,0x18266,0x16be0,
386 0x1683e,0x179d8,0x18a4d,0x19992,0x1a789,0x1b445,0x1bf61,0x1c989,
387 0x1d16d,0x1d77b,0x1dddf,0x1e2ad,0x1e5bf,0x1e6e8,0x1e654,0x1e3cd,
388 0x1df2a,0x1d635,0x1cb16,0x1be2c,0x1ae4e,0x19bde,0x1868e,0x16e2e,
389 0x1527f,0x1334a,0x11051,0xe951, 0xbe01, 0x8e0d, 0x5924, 0x1edd,};
391 (2) Iterative refinement
393 Apply Reciproot iteration three times to y and multiply the
394 result by x to get an approximation z that matches sqrt(x)
395 to about 1 ulp. To be exact, we will have
396 -1ulp < sqrt(x)-z<1.0625ulp.
398 ... set rounding mode to Round-to-nearest
399 y := y*(1.5-0.5*x*y*y) ... almost 15 sig. bits to 1/sqrt(x)
400 y := y*((1.5-2^-30)+0.5*x*y*y)... about 29 sig. bits to 1/sqrt(x)
401 ... special arrangement for better accuracy
402 z := x*y ... 29 bits to sqrt(x), with z*y<1
403 z := z + 0.5*z*(1-z*y) ... about 1 ulp to sqrt(x)
405 Remark 2. The constant 1.5-2^-30 is chosen to bias the error so that
406 (a) the term z*y in the final iteration is always less than 1;
407 (b) the error in the final result is biased upward so that
408 -1 ulp < sqrt(x) - z < 1.0625 ulp
409 instead of |sqrt(x)-z|<1.03125ulp.
413 By twiddling y's last bit it is possible to force y to be
414 correctly rounded according to the prevailing rounding mode
415 as follows. Let r and i be copies of the rounding mode and
416 inexact flag before entering the square root program. Also we
417 use the expression y+-ulp for the next representable floating
418 numbers (up and down) of y. Note that y+-ulp = either fixed
419 point y+-1, or multiply y by nextafter(1,+-inf) in chopped
422 R := RZ; ... set rounding mode to round-toward-zero
424 case RN: ... round-to-nearest
425 if(x<= z*(z-ulp)...chopped) z = z - ulp; else
426 if(x<= z*(z+ulp)...chopped) z = z; else z = z+ulp;
428 case RZ:case RM: ... round-to-zero or round-to--inf
429 R:=RP; ... reset rounding mod to round-to-+inf
430 if(x<z*z ... rounded up) z = z - ulp; else
431 if(x>=(z+ulp)*(z+ulp) ...rounded up) z = z+ulp;
433 case RP: ... round-to-+inf
434 if(x>(z+ulp)*(z+ulp)...chopped) z = z+2*ulp; else
435 if(x>z*z ...chopped) z = z+ulp;
439 Remark 3. The above comparisons can be done in fixed point. For
440 example, to compare x and w=z*z chopped, it suffices to compare
441 x1 and w1 (the trailing parts of x and w), regarding them as
442 two's complement integers.
444 ...Is z an exact square root?
445 To determine whether z is an exact square root of x, let z1 be the
446 trailing part of z, and also let x0 and x1 be the leading and
449 If ((z1&0x03ffffff)!=0) ... not exact if trailing 26 bits of z!=0
450 I := 1; ... Raise Inexact flag: z is not exact
452 j := 1 - [(x0>>20)&1] ... j = logb(x) mod 2
453 k := z1 >> 26; ... get z's 25-th and 26-th
455 I := i or (k&j) or ((k&(j+j+1))!=(x1&3));
457 R:= r ... restore rounded mode
460 If multiplication is cheaper then the foregoing red tape, the
461 Inexact flag can be evaluated by
466 Note that z*z can overwrite I; this value must be sensed if it is
469 Remark 4. If z*z = x exactly, then bit 25 to bit 0 of z1 must be
477 Further more, bit 27 and 26 of z1, bit 0 and 1 of x1, and the odd
478 or even of logb(x) have the following relations:
480 -------------------------------------------------
481 bit 27,26 of z1 bit 1,0 of x1 logb(x)
482 -------------------------------------------------
488 -------------------------------------------------
490 (4) Special cases (see (4) of Section A).